Authors: Costi Tsakiridis & Domagoj Bosnjak
Introduction
Introduction
The tennis serve has been referred to as the most complex stroke in the
game, as well as one of the most useful strokes for winning a match (Kovacs &Ellenbecker, 2011; Martin et al., 2014).
These factors make the acquisition of the tennis serve both important and
difficult to learn. The reason for the complexity of the serve is due to the
combination of joint and limb movements which are required to transfer force from
the ground, through the kinetic chain and following out into the ball. Professional
tennis players are able to harness the maximal amount of power during a tennis
serve through their kinetic chain, effectively using selected muscle groups in
a synchronised order(Kovacs &Ellenbecker, 2011).
The implementation of the kinetic chain allows greater ball velocity to
manifest through generation, summation and transfer of mechanical energy (Martin et al., 2014).
The advantage of an athlete who is able to generate larger amounts of velocity
behind the ball increases their likelihood of winning the point during their
service game. Kovacs and Ellenbecker (2011)
break down the serve into an 8-stage model which has 3 distinct phases:
preparation, acceleration and follow-through. These 3 distinct phases rely
heavily on the knowledge and understanding of the tennis serve’s optimal
biomechanics, which in turn produce an improved performance – leading to our question:
“What are the optimal biomechanics of the tennis serve?”
Overview of 3-Phase,
8-Stage Model of Tennis Serve:
The 8-stage model is divided
into three phases: preparation, acceleration and follow through (Refer Image
1). The 8 stages entail: starting position, release of the ball, loading,
cocking, acceleration, contact, deceleration and finish position (Kovacs
&Ellenbecker, 2011).
Image 1:
Types of serve:
There are three different
types of serves which are commonly used in professional tennis, producing a
different outcome which is determined by the spin action of the ball [Refer
Image 2] (Abrams et al., 2014). These major types are: the flat serve which
requires limited spin; the slice serve which requires side spin, either left or
right; and the topspin serve, also referred to as the ‘kick’ serve, which
requires topspin, springing upwards into the direction of the receiver (Kovacs
&Ellenbecker, 2011). No major differences are seen within the lower body
and trunk muscles when producing the different serves, however it is important
to note that bilateral differences in muscle activation occur more in the
rectus abdominis and external oblique in comparison to the internal oblique and
lumbar erector spinae muscles (Kovacs &Ellenbecker, 2011).
Image 2:Types of serve
Stage 1: start
The main goal of the start of a tennis serve is to best align
your body in order to utilize the ground reaction forces (GRFs) in the most
effective possible manner (Fleisig et al., 2003). The many different styles and approaches that are used in
relation to a professional tennis athletes initial stance and positioning is
mainly due to personal style and preference, leaving little effect on the
overall result of the serve itself. At this stage however, the training of an
athlete’s stability and balance during the learning of this stage can be
helpful as a stable base of support is an essential part of this stage (Refer Image
3). The use of the muscles within the scapular and shoulder regions is quite
low at this stage and only comes into full activation later throughout the
serve (Ryu et al., 1988).
Image 3: Stable base of
support
Stage 2: release
The release stage starts as soon as the tennis ball has left the
non-preferred hand of the athlete (Refer Image 4). The muscles used during the
tennis serve and in particular at this stage are very minimal in the left parts
of the erector spinae, staying this way for the majority of the serve. The use
of the right side of the erector spinae increases steadily from the stat of the
tennis serve all the way until the end (Chow et al., 2009). At
this stage we see the introduction of the body trying to generate more force
summation in order to generate more power out of the tennis serve. The overall
combination of different parts of the body producing forces act together in
order to produce maximum force which is called force summation (Sandercock&
Mass, 2009).
Image 4: Release of Ball
Newton’s third law which is ‘every action has an equal
and opposite reaction’ is also incorporated into the stage of the tennis serve (Blazevich, 2013, pp. 44-46). Once the ball is thrown
into the air by the non-dominant hand, the same arm is left up in the air in
order to help achieve an equal and opposite force with both of the arms. The
action from the arm that threw the ball up originally helps balance out the
action of the arm which holds the racquet; thismeans that the quicker the arm
with the racquet rotates along with the torso, the more power will be generated
(Knudson, 2007).
How and where a player tosses the ball for a serve in tennis
is a vital part in making sure they can successfully perform a tennis serve.
The throw of the ball should be lateral over the head of the server and ball
contact should be made at around 100° of arm abduction (Bahamonde,
2000). Improper toss location of the tennis serve and trunk position can have
an effect on potential shoulder pain and injuries if these issues are not
addressed early.
Stage 3: loading
The loading stage entails positioning segments of the body in particular
ways which in turn helps produce potential energy. There are two ways to
position the athlete’s feet: the foot-up technique; and the foot-back technique
(Refer Image5). Athletes who compose the tennis serve using the foot-up
technique use vertical forces; this ultimately allows the athlete to reach
greater heights in comparison to other techniques(Kovacs &Ellenbecker, 2011). In this technique, the rear leg
provides a push forwards and upwards, whereas the front leg provides the
athlete with a strong stable post which allows rotational momentum. It is
important to note that this foot-up technique requires athletes to undergo
unconventional training of the lower body for the landing of both feet after
the service impact (Kovacs
&Ellenbecker, 2011).
Image 5: Foot Techniques
On the other hand, the foot-back serving technique requires a greater knee
joint extension, which in turn requires lower body training similar to above.
Putting this into comparison, the optimal foot-up technique requires a knee
extension of 54.1° ± 11.7° and the optimal foot-back technique requires the
knee extension of 65.5° ± 12.6° (Kovacs
&Ellenbecker, 2011). The advantage of using the foot-back technique is
that it allows athletes to produce a wider base of support which in turn
permits greater squat depth.
According to Kovacs &Ellenbecker
(2011), the velocity of a serve has a correlation with greater muscle force
during this third stage, the loading stage. Additionally, the efficiency of a
server has a correlation with the internal rotation of the arm which holds the racquet.
Although
the two foot techniques will impact the outcome of stability and height of the
loading stage, it is important to note that the velocity of the ball is not
affected through different foot techniques. The lateral rear tilt of the shoulder
and pelvis at the end of the loading phase enables the development of angular
momentum through the lateral trunk flexion and is an important aspect of all
powerful servers [Refer Image 6] (Kovacs
&Ellenbecker, 2011).
Image 6: Lateral rear tilt and angles
Stage 4: cocking
The fourth phase of the tennis serve, the cocking position (Refer Image 7)
relies heavily on efficiently moving through the loading stage (previous
stage). Efficiency is produced through the dominant arm when it comes to
driving the racquet down while the back of the torso increases
the trajectory of the racquet to the ball. The benefit of this position is the
fact that it does not need the optimal range of motion, stabilization,
positioning throughout the shoulder region, however despite this, the position
still allows for greater energy potential (Reid et all., 2008).
Image 7: Cocking and joint
angles
During the late preparation stage there are high internal eccentric rotator
loads which are being applied (backswing), which later change into stage 5
which is the acceleration phase before the impact with the ball. When the leg
drive is used effectively it forces the racquet in a downwardsdirection away
from the back of the athlete. This energy is found to help
assist in producing racquet velocity throughout the acceleration phase of the
tennis serve (Kibler et al., 2007).
Throughout the fourth stage, the cocking position, there is a rise in the
vertical ground reaction forces, at the same time there is an increase in
muscle activation in the following muscles: vastuslateralis; gastrocnemius; and
the vastusmedialis (Chow et al., 2009). The maximum external shoulder rotation
is achieved at 0.090 ± 0.014 seconds prior to contacting the tennis ball within
professional tennis athletes. At this stage the leg drive is near complete.
During the time of the maximum external rotation, the shoulder is abducted at
101º ± 13º, abducted horizontally 7º ± 13º, and rotated externally 172º ± 12º.
The elbow at this moment is flexed 104º ± 12º, whilst the wrist is extended at
66º ± 19º (Refer Image 7). The result of this is in a tight and parallel
position in between the trunk and the racquet. The motions which are used
during this type of degree of external rotation are the trunk extension motion,
the scapulothoracic motion and the glenohumeral motion. There is a similarity
in the range of a professional athlete who plays baseball as to that of a
professional tennis player when it comes to the magnitude of external rotation;
in between 178º-175º (Elliot, 2006).
When there is a continued repetition of the external rotation throughout a
tennis serve, it becomes possible that it can lead to a greater external
shoulder rotation on the dominant arm whilst at the expense of the internal
rotation. However,this rise in the external rotation does not match that of the
dominant armof a baseball pitcher who plays at a professional
level. When there is a loss of 10º to 15º, both the total rotation and internal
rotation generally occur at 90º in the shoulder when abducted (Konda et al., 2010). The posterior shoulder
stretches in order to counter the internal rotation losses in wise tennis
players.
At the stage of cocking, additional loads on the shoulders whenin an abducted
and externally rotated position can possibly lead to
injuries. The activity of the muscles is between moderate and high at this
stage of the tennis serve. The percentages of use in each of these muscles are
as follows: serratus anterior (70%); biceps brachii (39%);subscapularis (25%);
infraspinatus (41%); and supraspinatus (53%) (Kibler et al.,
2007). These muscles are working at this level in order to
help provide stabilisation. The moderate to high levels of muscle use
throughout this stage highlights an importance of the posterior and anterior
rotator cuff and scapular in order to properly execute the cocking stage of the
tennis serve.
There is a large dependence on the glenohumeral position throughout this
stage. In order for the coronal plane and the glenohumeral plane to be anterior
to each other, 7º of horizontal adduction from the coronal plane must take
place. The infraspinatus/supraspinatus and the glenoid have an increase in the
amount of contact pressure between each other with the abducted shoulder which
is externally rotated (Knudson, 2007). There is a high risk factor again with
injures when it comes to the hyper abduction positioning with the throwing
shoulder. When the tossing arm is dropped early as well as an early trunk and
hip rotation forward, it is possible that there can be exaggerated horizontal
abduction, which can otherwise be known as arm lag – this can place extra
loading on the anterior capsular structures and can place the shoulder to
posterior impingement.
During the action of maximal external rotation there are angles of 83º and
101º which are quite high and can possibly risk impingement. When there is
lower internal and external rotation ratios produced by professional tennis
players, it indicates that they have developed selective use of internal
rotators relevant to the external rotators (Reid et al., 2008).
Stage 5 - acceleration
Stage 5 of the tennis serve is called the acceleration phase. This stage is
greatly impacted by what has been happening on the previous 4 stages and how
efficiently they are performed. Elite tennis players and servers have a much
faster acceleration phase than that of a beginner; this is thanks to much more
vigorous knee extension throughout the phases 3-6. Elite tennis players move
throughout the maximum glenohumeral joint external rotation through to the
contact of the ball in less than 1/100 of a second (Ryu
et al., 1999).
Throughout this stage the muscles in which there is high muscle activity
are: subscapularis (113%); latissimus dorsi (57%); pectoralis major (115%); and
serratus anterior (74%) (Refer Image 8). Many of these figures correspond with
the muscle use of that within the acceleration phase of a throw (Kibler et al., 2007). The deltoid, triceps,
trapezius, and pectoralis major are all active throughout the stage of
acceleration within the acceleration phase of both the tennis serve and the
throwing motion.
Image 8: Muscle groups used
There are two factors which directly affect power production throughout
this stage. These are both neuromuscular coordination and strength. 1.68 to
2.12 times a person’s body weight is approximately that of what is produced
through vertical force production throughout the serve (Kovacs&Ellenbecker, 2011).
In order to produce as much acceleration as possible for the tennis serve
it is essential that as well as producing power from the trunk muscles, we need
to produce acceleration of the racquet before the ball. This is done by a quick
lumbar spine rotation reversal for a server which serves with his right hand
through hyperextension and right lateral flexion to flexion and left lateral
flexion. The corkscrew, as this movement is also known as, allows the transfer
of the torque through to the muscle segments (Kovacs&Ellenbecker, 2011). Through constant trunk
hyperextensions the serve may cause an athlete stress on the lumbar spine.
Stage 6 - contact
Image 9: Contact point
At the contact of the ball, the ball velocity is produced by flexion of the
wrist and internal shoulder rotation. Wrist flexion (15º ±8º), front knee
flexion (24º ± 14º), and elbow flexion (20º ± 4º) are very small at contact.
Trunk is generally tilted 48º ± 7º above horizontal for professional tennis
players (Kovacs&Ellenbecker,
2011).
When the left lateral flexion angle is greater it shows us that more height
will be achieved throughout the tennis serve. The left rectus abdomis is also
greater in its activity levels at this stage (Kovacs&Ellenbecker, 2011). Tennis players with that
of a higher skill are more likely to be subjected to higher asymmetric loads on
their lumbar spines as a result of higher lateral flexion.
Stage 7 - deceleration stage
Stage 7, the follow through stage, is the phase which is considered to be
the most violent and vigorous throughout the whole tennis serve. It requires
the athlete to decelerate eccentric loads in both the lower and upper body.
Forearm pronation and glenohumeral internal rotation are continued at this
stage and through to after the contact of the ball in the serve through to the
slowing down after contact has been made (Antunez
et al., 2012). This type of motion has been named the long axis
rotation.
It is possible that the deceleration force activity between both the arm
and the trunk of the athlete during the stage of deceleration can be as high as
levels of 300 N m. The benefit of this force is that it is able to stabilise one’s
body weight up to 0.5 to 0.75 against any sort of distraction forces (Martin et al., 2014).
The muscles which are being used moderately-highly throughout this stage
are: the dorsi musculature; deltoid; biceps brachii; serratus anterior; and the
posterior rotator cuff. 30% - 35% is the percentage range of the posterior cuff
activation because the humerus is slowed down after the point of contact. In
order to offset any distraction force and keep glenohumeral congruity [Refer
Image 10] (Kovacs&Ellenbecker,
2011).
Image 10: Muscle Groups used
Throughout the whole action of the tennis serve, the left internal oblique
is more active than the right internal oblique apart from the deceleration
stage (Abrams et al., 2014). The right erector spine becomes very active
throughout this part of the serve as it helps to stabilize the trunk when the
posture is unbalanced, which is the case in the deceleration stage.
Stage 8 – follow through
The final stage of the tennis serve finishes on the landing of
the lower body (Refer Image 11). This motion generates eccentric forces. The
front foot is used as a large horizontal breaking force using the foot up
technique, but because the centre of the mass is moved to a forward position,
it could possibly hinder players on their serve (Reid et al., 2008).
There are very little alterations between the serve kinematics
between female and male athletes who are professional at tennis; therefore
different genders do not need to learn different mechanics (Kovacs&Ellenbecker, 2011).
Torque & Levers in relation to the tennis serve
Torque and levers both have some specific effects which can be intertwined
with each other. When it comes to the amount of power which is released from the
tennis serve, both the levers and torque share equal importance (Bahamonde,
2000). The force in which rotation is allowed is known as the torque. This is
able to be presented around the object axis. The way in which this is related
to the tennis serve is through movements from body parts such as the legs, arms
and hips of the athlete. These types of movements rotate in a particular way.
The main significance of torque within the tennis serve is throughout the swing
of the serve (Elliott, 2006).
In order to increase the amount of torque we need to increase the distance
of the muscle to the joint. This is shown through the extension of the arm from
the action of the tennis serve. Extending the arm more is valuable as it gives
players more acceleration on the head of the racquet and a greater power on the
ball (Fleisig et al., 2003). This is due to us extending the length of the
lever and the movement arm as mentioned earlier.
Kinetic Chain
The Kinetic chain is a process where the athlete should be required to
understand a step by step list of instructions, understanding which mechanisms
of their body will be in use throughout the performance of complex tasks required
in sports skills; in this case, the tennis serve. It is a routine of movement
sequences in which different parts of the body wither activates, mobilize or
stabilize in order to generate force, motion production, and protection of
muscle tissue damage and increased strain on the athlete’s body during
activity. If throughout the kinetic chain we are to produce an increased power
throughout a certain body part, the object will then have a higher velocity and
will have a greater overall kinetic energy (Blazevich, 2013, pp. 102-103).
The main 3 purposes of the kinetic chain are;
- Efficiently generating and transferring both force and kinetic energy to distal segment in order to proficiently move an object. This is accomplished by using the principle of ‘summation of speed’ where both the force and velocity which are produced throughout each different segment are supported and increased by the actions within the proximal segments. A good example of this is the cracking of a whip (Cordo&Nashner, 2008).
- The position and the stabilization of the different segments of the body in order to help absorb and control the forces which have been developed at the joint. This is accomplished by making postural movements which are anticipatory which are mixed with the athletic activity pattern in order to maintain a more stable base for activity (Elliot, 2006).
- Stabilizing the posture of the body in order to counteract destabilizing effects and any eccentric loads of any athletic movements. This is accomplished by assimilating proximal and distal muscle activation on order to spread the load throughout the whole extremity, controlling eccentric and tension loads and putting joints in a position in which they will be most stable in either the lower or the upper extremity (Zattara et al., 2010) .
Kinetic chain in relation to the tennis serve;
Within the serve in tennis there are many different components. The
components include; spin and placement and velocity, these all have relations
to effectively developing an action throughout the kinetic chain (Nicholls,
2003). The intended result of this is having the optimal placement of the
racquet to be at the maximum velocity with the wanted trajectory to be ‘up and
through’ the tennis ball. In order for this to happen, the body of the athlete
must first go ‘down and back’ in to a kinematic position of loading and a
kinetic position of cocking, the arms are to next move forward at a rapid pace,
and through the ball.
There are two different ways in which you can perform
this type of skill: the first is by pushing both the arm and the body through
the ball impact; the second contains pulling it through. Both of these types of
kinetic patterns have differences which are observable to the naked eye in how
the segments are moved and activated. They also differ in the way that they
both have different biomechanical results and physiological stresses for the
performance of the serve (Putnam 1993).
It is known that within tennis,
very rarely do you see two players serve the ball in the exact same way.
However the guidelines for every athlete’s tennis serve remain the same and
this is all based on the principles of the kinetic chain (Refer Image 12).
Image 12: Kinetic Chain of Tennis Serve
Biomechanical teaching cues (right handed tennis player)
1.
Before doing anything in the serve you must ensure
that you are standing behind the baseline, on the opposite side from where you
will be serving from. Stand facing
sideways, and point your left foot to face the other post of the net, ensuring
that your right is parallel to the court.
2.
Point your right shoulder towards the direction of the
service box where you are serving.
3.
Align the trunk of the body in order to try and utilise
the ground below in order to generate power/force throughout the motion of the
serve.
4.
Throw the ball up in the air with your opposite hand
to where the racquet is (your left), and keep the arm in the air in order to
help generate power on the serve.
5.
Ball toss must also ensure that it goes high and in front
of you a little, in order to help generate momentum.
6.
Bring the head of the racquet up behind you and bend
your elbow behind your head, as emulating the position of as if you were to
scratch your back with the racquet. Bending knees will help to move the head of
the racquet in an upwards motion; it will again generate greater power.
7.
Use either the foot-up technique, bringing your back
foot closer to the front foot or the foot-back technique, which involves
keeping your foot further back from your front foot.
8.
Tilt right shoulder back and bend knees before jumping
for contact of the ball to help generate power.
9.
Jump in the air towards the ball, abducting shoulders
and elbow flexion of around 115º as well as wrist extension of 77º.
10.
Strike the ball in the sweet spot (the middle) of the
tennis racquet. Bring the racquet head above in order to hit the ball with as
much power and speed as possible all whilst keeping control on the tennis
serve. Your shoulders will rotate similarly to how they would if they were
throwing a ball. It is important to be fluid with your shot and not just try
hitting the ball as hard as you can.
11.
To get the most out of your shots, you should hit the
ball at the point in which it is the highest.
12.
Follow through on the tennis serve by singing the
racquet down near the bottom of your opposite foot.
13.
Ensure stable landing. The follow-through of the
tennis serve should cause you to step in towards the court. Ensure that you are
prepared for the return.
Breakdown of Roger Federer’s tennis serve (Refer Image 13).
Image 13: Federer Serving Motion Shots
Roger Federer has one of the most smooth and effortless tennis serves in
the world and he has one of the most underrated serves going around. Although
Federer does not reach quite the speeds of some of the other professional
tennis players, he is much better in many of the other aspects of the serve.
Federer’s serve is a great model for young people to try and emulate as it is a
simpler, more classical and has less extreme elements than other professional
tennis athletes (Shiras, 2014). Below is a rundown of the tennis legend’s
serving technique in accordance to the biomechanical teaching cues above.
1.Federer never rushes his technique; he starts with his hands together with
his racquet drawn back and down whilst his left hand drops.
2.Federer tends to let his racquet trial down instead of tossing and lifting
the racquet at the same speed. He shifts his energy in to his quadriceps and
bends his legs throughout this motion.
3.His wrist is loose and his arm is bent as the ball goes up. His ball toss
is slightly in front of him and fairly high in the air. He turns his shoulder
in such a way that the opponent will have trouble trying to predict what type
of a serve he is going to produce.
4.This is Federer’s famous trophy position as it is now known as. He is basically
underneath the ball with his chest pointing towards the sky looking at it. His
racquet is about to drop down and is in mid loop. At this moment he is able to
spring upward on towards the ball, putting all of his available energy at the
ball.
5.This is the point where his racquet is at the lowest point. However, at
this moment his torso, legs and chest are all on the way up. His racquet at
this stage still hasn’t moved up. The purpose of his movement at this stage of
the skill is to make the conditions perfect for the racquet to be able to
spring up as fast as possible.
6.At this stage his arm is completely extended. There is a small arch to his
body, but this is due to him moving up and out. As his racquet is so high it
gives him the chance to hit the ball into his opposition’s service box from an
improved angle. His head and eyes stay up and focused at the point of contact
even after the serve has been played.
7.His head is still up even though the swing is just about in completion. His
wrist has rotated onto the ball whilst his momentum has moved onto the court.
His left arm is kept close to his body in order to maintain balance. Although
this part of the serve is meant to be the most violent looking part of the
swing, Roger makes it look effortless and smooth.
8.The landing of Roger is just on the inside of the baseline. His right foot
moves back which helps him balance. His knees are also bent apart at this stage
to help aid the landing. He is not looking towards the court and is positioned
in a way in which he could easily move to the left and right of the court to
return the next shot which comes his way (Shiras, 2014).
The Answer
The biomechanical principles
which are required to achieve the optimum tennis serve can be easily split into
3 phases which are the further split into 8 stages. A confident and well
established base of support is crucial to the commencement of the first stage. Throughout
the next stage, force summation is used in order to produce the maximum
possible momentum using a combination of different body parts. Newton’s third
law now manifests itself during the ball toss as the player swings for the
ball, utilising their trunk in a twist action, bringing the non-dominant arm
down. Taking advantage of the knowledge surrounding the kinetic chain, a player
will be able to understand how they can create an elastic energy which
amplifies the speed of the serve. This speed is also heavily influenced by the
proper execution of the cocking stage. This entails the player’s elbow flexion
to average 115°, wrist extension to average 77° and shoulder abduction to
average 113°. The contact point is equally as important. Contact should be made
in the ‘sweet spot’ of the racquet while at the same time the trunk tilt is at
an average of 48° and abduction at an average of 101°. The deceleration and
follow through stage should be completed accordingly and comfortably. Many
injuries occur due to poor technique and heavy landing positions so it is
important to generate confidence in these stages. Following the teaching cue
stages above which have additionally been connected to Roger Federer’s serve,
players should produce the optimum tennis serve.
How else can we use this information?
Connections to baseball techniques have been made through the
investigation. For example, there is a similarity in the range of a
professional athlete who plays baseball as to that of a professional tennis
player when it comes to the magnitude of external rotation; in between
178º-175º (Elliot, 2006). Followed by the fact that the average shoulder
abduction for elite tennis players before contact of the ball is around 100º,
which again is quite similar to that of a baseball pitcher who need 100º ± 10º
angle in order to produce maximum ball velocity as well as having as little as
possible loading on the joints of the shoulders.
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Appendix 1: Images
Image 1 – 3-Phase, 8-Stage Model of Tennis Serve.
Information used in custom
diagram taken from Kovacs &Ellenbecker (2011)
Image 2 – Types of serve
Image taken from Kovacs
&Ellenbecker (2011)
Image 3 – Stable base of
support
Custom image and diagram of
ATP Junior Player, Mislav Bosnjak
Image 4 – Release of Ball
Custom image and diagram of
ATP Junior Player, Mislav Bosnjak
Image 5 – Foot Techniques
Custom image and diagram of
ATP Junior Player, Mislav Bosnjak
Image 6 – Lateral rear titlts
and angles
Custom image and diagram of
ATP Junior Player, Mislav Bosnjak
Image 7 – Cocking and joint
angles
Custom image and diagram of
ATP Junior Player, Mislav Bosnjak
Image 8 – Muscle Groups used
Custom image
Image 9 – Contact Point
Custom image and diagram of
ATP Junior Player, Mislav Bosnjak
Image 10 – Muscle Groups used
Custom Image
Image 11 – Follow through and
landing
Custom image and diagram of
ATP Junior Player, Mislav Bosnjak
Image 12 – Kinetic Chain of
Tennis Serve
Custom image
Image 13 – Federer Serving
Motion Shots
Image taken from Shiras (2014)